Kani tribe, ethnoveterinary survey, informants, traditional medicine, Western Ghats.

Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) plays an essential role in animal production and livelihood development in many poor rural areas and is frequently the only option for farmers to treat their sick animals. The term "ethnoveterinary" is defined as "local people's beliefs and aboriginal knowledge as well as, the   practices used for the treatment of animal diseases" (Rehman et al., 2022). 

Shalihotrus Ashwashastra (1800BC) is the first work on veterinary science. Hastyayurveda (1000BC) by Palakapya is the ancient text on elephants. Mastsyapurana, Garudapurana, Lingpurana etc. have veterinary information. Arthashastra by Kautilya describes cattle, buffaloes, goat, horse, elephant and other animals. There were local healers called pashuvaidhyars who were knowledgeable and experienced in traditional veterinary health care. Veterinary practices were mentioned even in Rigveda (2000-1400BC) and Atharvaveda.

In India veterinary medical knowledge is classified into folk and cordified traditions. According to the 2011 Census, the Scheduled Tribes account for 104 million representing 8.6% of the country's population. These Scheduled Tribes were spread throughout the country largely in forest and hilly regions. There are about 36-40 tribal communities in Kerala. The major tribes of Kerala are Kani, Kurichiyar, Kurumar, Ulladan and Kattunaikkan. These tribal communities have immense knowledge about the use of fauna and flora in and around them.

 Livestock are the important part of our economy and therefore their health perspectives are equally important. Many people of our country, earn their daily living from their domesticated animals. Each of the tribal communities have their own social and cultural identity (Purushothaman et al., 2020). Healthy animals yield healthy and nutritious products. But the task of keeping animals healthy is not easy as the veterinary facilities are very meager in many of the states of India. A research article by Shrivastava et al., (2017), deals with the review on use of ethnoveterinary practices in different parts of India as well as abroad. An ethnobotanical study on veterinary medicinal plants of Bandipora district of Jammu and Kashmir revealed that indigestion, diarrhoea, gaseous bloat, foot and mouth disease, milk deficiency and yoke gall were the most frequently reported diseases (Sultan et al., 2022).

Herbal medicinal knowledge has been passed down orally from generation to generation, with the result that it has deteriorated (Poornima et al., 2010). Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) considers that traditional practices of veterinary medicine are legitimate and seeks to validate them. The high degree of consensus among the informants suggests that the current use and knowledge is still not much strong and needs to be updated (Bhandary et al., 2014). In this present scenario, this study will be helpful to fill the gaps that might have not been covered due to the negligence in documentation of ethnoveterinary practices. This study might aid in promoting large-scale awareness of the need to preserve ethnobotanical knowledge as pointed out by Thakur and Waske (2018); Verma (2016); Thakur and Sarika (2016); Radha and Puri (2018), as well as by Kumar and Duggal (2019), in their studies.

Study Area. The study was conducted among the Kani tribes inhabiting Puravimalakadavu   of Amboori village situated in the southern tip of Western Ghats near Trivandrum, Kerala, South India. South-East of Amboori is Tamil Nadu (Fig. 1). It is a part of Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve. Eastern part is covered by densely forested Neyyar wildlife sanctuary of Kerala. The village experiences a tropical humid climate. The Kani tribes here primarily practice agriculture and animal husbandry. 

Fig. 1. Map showing study area – Puravimalakadavu, Amboori, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

Ethnobotany: a methods manual (Martin, 2010) was followed as the general guideline for the present study.

Data were collected over a period of 4 months. Field visits, informal and semi-structured interviews, and group discussions were conducted with 30 informants, including traditional healers and livestock owners. The interviews focused on plant identification, parts used, preparation methods, ailments treated, and administration techniques.

Collected specimens were identified using local floras and authenticated by botanical experts. Voucher specimens were preserved in herbarium sheets. Plants were documented with details such as scientific name, local name, family, habit, plant part used, and mode of application.

Data analysis was carried out to understand the ethnomedicinal plants in ethnoveterinary practices. The data is analysed with the help of, Bar diagrams, Pie charts and Tables.

Tabulation of data consisted of scientific name, local name, family, plant part used, disease and treated animals.

The Ethnomedicinal plant species used by the Kani tribal people to treat animal ailments both as single medicine (a single plant is used) and compound medicines (a combination of more than one plant is used) are categorised under Scientific name, Family, Local name, Plant part used (with description of used part), Habit, Disease condition and Animals treated. 

The documented ethnoveterinary knowledge highlighted the use of single medicinal plants in treating a broad spectrum of livestock ailments affecting cattle, goats, and poultry. Each plant is carefully selected and identified by its scientific and local names, family, plant part used, and habit (Table 1). Treatments address frequent and conditions such as fever, wounds, ulcers, skin infections, digestive issues, reproductive disorders, and toxic bites. Remedies are prepared traditionally—as decoctions, infusions, pastes, or extracts—and administered either topically for external infections or orally for systemic illnesses.

The practice of compound medicine, involving multiple plants in a single remedy, demonstrates advanced indigenous knowledge of synergistic healing. Notable examples include the treatment of mastitis using Aloe vera, Curcuma longa, Alpinia galanga, and Citrus limon, or foot and mouth disease using a blend of Allium sativum, Azadirachta indica, and Acalypha indica in oil bases. Fever remedies vary based on livestock species, combining antipyretic herbs like Swertia perennis, Zingiber officinale, and Piper nigrum in oral infusions. These combinations are often enhanced with common household ingredients such as jaggery, sesame oil, turmeric, or rice water, reflecting both cultural accessibility and cost-effectiveness.

These traditional formulations reflect not only a deep-rooted cultural heritage but also a sustainable alternative to modern veterinary treatments, especially in rural settings. The precise use of locally available plants, some of which are endemic or threatened, highlights the need of documentation and conservation. Furthermore, this knowledge provides a foundation for pharmacological validation, promoting eco-friendly animal healthcare systems. Preserving and studying these practices not only ensures livestock welfare but also protects traditional ecological wisdom.

Table 1: List of medicinal plants used by Kani tribes for ethnoveterinary practices at Puravimalakadavu tribal settlement in Amboori Village, Trivandrum District, Kerala.

Taxonomic Diversity of Medicinal Plants. From the study, it has been found that 109 genera and 55 family from angiosperms and 1 species from pteridophyte (Hemionitis artifolia (Burm.f.) T. Moore) were used by the Kani tribes as summarised in Table 1. 

Family Dominance. Fabaceae was the most dominant family with 11 genera, followed by Acanthaceae (6), Scitamineae including subfamilies (6) Asteraceae (5) Euphorbiaceae (4 species), and Apocynaceae (3 species) (Table 2). Euphorbiaceae (4 species), and Apocynaceae (3 species). 

Table 2: Table showing family dominance.

HABIT

Fig. 2. Habit wise distribution of medicinal plants.

 Habit wise distribution of medicinal plants showed that herbs were predominant (56 species), followed by shrubs (25 species), trees (20 species), creepers (3 species), climbers (4 species) and epiphyte (1 species) (Fig. 2).

Plant Part Used. An analysis of the officinal parts of medicinal plant for ethnoveterinary practices for the treatments of animals showed that almost all parts are used in medicine preparation -leaves, flower, flower buds, seeds, rhizomes, stem, bark, latex, roots, fruit and whole plant (Fig. 3). The diversity of plant parts used—including leaves, rhizomes, seeds, bark, latex, and even entire plants—reveals a holistic approach to medicine.  Here the tribal communities, mostly utilized leaves for the preparation of many herbal medicines.

Fig. 3. Plant parts used for ethnoveterinary practices.

Media used for Preparation. Media used for Application of ethnoveterinary medicine were rice water, coconut oil, jaggery, sesame oil, neem oil, butter, boiled rice, palm jaggery, water and soda powder. Mostly medicinal species were mixed with water (35 species), followed by rice water (27 species ), coconut oil(14), neem oil (19), jaggery (9), palm jaggery(8),  sesame oil(12), butter (2), boiled rice (20), sodapowder (1). (Fig. 4).

Mode of Preparation and Application. Plants / parts were prepared in the form of decoction, juice, paste, oil and powder. Most of the medicines were prepared in the form of paste (55%) followed by decoction (23%), oil (6 %), powder (8%) and juice (8%) (Fig. 5). Most medicinal preparations were taken topically in the form of fresh paste (50 %), followed by oral application (48%) and bath (12%).

Fig. 4. Media used for Administration/Application of Ethnoveterinary medicine

Among the modes of preparation, paste formulations dominate, likely due to their simplicity and effectiveness in topical applications. Oral remedies, often administered as decoctions or infusions, target systemic illnesses and internal disorders. The preparation and administration techniques are indicative of a refined empirical knowledge developed over generations.

Fig. 5. Mode of preparation of medicine used for the administration of Ethnoveterinary medicine.

Ailment Categories - (Use Pattern of Plant Species used in Ethnoveterinary Practises). About 35 ailments were reported from Kani tribal people of the study area (Table 3.) Cattles were the dominating groups. Most frequently reported ailment was fever (15 species), followed by bloat and indigestion (14 species), ulcer (12 species), FMD (8 species), mastitis (7 species) and constipation (6 species). Representation of 4 species were found to be treating as adaptogens, bacterial infection, body pain, endoparasite, tissue strengthening, immunostimulant and post pregnancy ailments. Representation of 3 species for treating bleeding gums, dysentery and prolapse. Representation of 2 species for curing cough and meningitis. Cattles constitute more when compared to other livestock animals.

Table 3: Use pattern of plant species used in ethnoveterinary practices of Kani tribes.

Nativity. Out of the total plants, there were 3 endemic species (Naregamia alata Wight &Arn., Humboldtia unijugav ar. trijuga, Janakia arayalpathra J.), 55 indigenous species (Western ghats), 47 exotic species and 3 endangered species (Pterospermum rubiginosum Heyne, Colosanthes indica (L.) Blume, Curculigo orchioides Guertn.) which have been incorporated in the tribal medicine over years in Amboori village by the inhabiting tribal communities (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Nativity of Ethnomedicinal plants used by the tribal community.

A significant finding is the use of 3 endemic and 3 endangered species in ethnoveterinary practices, which not only stresses the ecological uniqueness of the Western Ghats but also highlights the urgent need for conservation strategies that bridge traditional practices with biodiversity protection. Moreover, the presence of 47 exotic species in tribal remedies suggests dynamic knowledge systems that evolve through contact and adaptation, incorporating non-native flora much effectively. 

Demographic Profile of the Informants. A total of 30 informants were interviewed including 14 male and 16 females. The demographic characteristic of informants is given in Fig. 7. The profile was created based on age pattern, more information was provided by people belonging to age group between 50 – 70, followed by the age group between 30- 50 and lastly by the age group between 15 -30.

Fig. 7. Demographic feature of informants in the settlement area.

In the present study the demographic data of informants revealed, the people between the age group 50 -70 provide higher amount of data than other groups.

DISCUSSION

This study conducted among the Kani tribal community offers a wide insight into the traditional knowledge systems associated with livestock healthcare. The documentation of these plant species, from the study area, gives a rich ethnobotanical heritage. Medicinal plants have played a significant role in the treatment of livestock and poultry animal diseases. Nisha et al. (2021) has also reported the use of medicinal plants in treating livestock diseases by Attapadi tribal farmers in Kerala.

This study showed that plants belonging to Fabaceae was the most dominant family used to treat animals. The high proposal of medicinal species Fabaceae families has already reported by Prabhu et al., 2014 & Verma, 2014. Fabaceae also known to have the highest number species, more than any other plant family in the world (Islam et al., 2014). Herbs were found to be dominant group of plants used. In a study conducted by Parthiban et al. (2016) in Tamil Nadu has reported that 42% of the species were herb. The common use of herbaceous medicinal plants was also reported in many parts of the world (Addo-Fordjour et al., 2008) and attributed to their wide range of bioactive ingredients (Gazzaneo et al., 2005).

In this study, the tribal communities, mostly utilized leaves for the preparation of many herbal medicines. In the present study the most frequently used plant part is leaf applied in the form of paste. All over the world tribal communities, utilized leaves for the preparation of herbal medicines (Ullah et al., 2013; Yabesh et al., 2014; Vijayakumar et al., 2015). The reason why leaves were used mostly is that they are collected very easily than underground parts flowers and fruits etc. (Giday et al., 2009).

The use of common and culturally accessible additives like rice water, sesame oil, jaggery, and turmeric strengthens both the therapeutic value and the practicality of the remedies. Balaji and Chakravarthi (2010) in a review on Ethnoveterinary Practices in India has stated that the above said additives make EVM freely available or at a cost in proportion to the value of the animal. It can also be easily administered, usually topically or orally. Eshetu et al. (2015) has mentioned about the Preparation and application methods of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants by traditional healers in selected districts of southern Ethiopia. In this study, he documented the ethnoveterinary medicinal plants, and their preparation and application methods used by traditional healers in treating different animal diseases, in the four districts with different culture and languages. Here also we can see that common form is paste preparation and topological application.

The practice of treating animal ailments using both single and compound medicines showed not only the diversity but also the depth of local healthcare knowledge. Single-species remedies were commonly used for routine ailments like wounds, fever, ulcers, and indigestion, while compound preparations highlighted an advanced understanding of synergistic effect, often observed in complex conditions like mastitis and foot-and-mouth disease. Cheesman et al. (2017) in their study has shown that the use of synergistic treatment regimens incorporating plant extracts or purified compounds derived from plants has become an emerging area of great interest in the scientific community and many such plants are those traditionally used by indigenous communities to treat infectious diseases. 

Livestock are the important part of economy so that their health perspectives are very crucial. It generates rural economy and rural employment. Farmers take care of their livestock using ethnoveterinary medicine which are cheaper than western drugs (Yinegar et al., 2007; Masika Kone & Atindehou 2008).  This study revealed that the ailments treated span over 35 categories, with fever, bloat, ulcers, FMD, and mastitis being the most frequently addressed. The inclusion of adaptogenic, immunostimulant, and tissue-strengthening remedies indicates an awareness of preventive healthcare and long-term wellness in animals, which extends beyond mere treatment of acute symptoms.  Parthiban et al. (2016) in their study on medicinal plants used to treat livestock diseases from Kudavasal taluk of Thiruvarur district, Tamil Nadu has pointed out that documentation of traditional knowledge is valuable for the communities and their future in treating domestic animals. The low cost and no side effects of these traditional preparations make them adaptable by the local community.

An important finding is the use of 3 endemic and 3 endangered species in ethnoveterinary practices along with the presence of 47 exotic species in tribal remedies. Most of the species reported in ethnoveterinary applications are wild, so that it is the world’s necessity to conserve traditional local knowledge of folk veterinary therapies. Abbasi et al. (2013) has also pointed out the need of conservation motives to assist with in situ and ex situ environmental conservation initiatives.

With regard to demographical data, in a study based on traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in treating livestock diseases conducted in Kudavasai taluk of Thiruvarur district in Tamilnadu shared same demographic inference about the knowledge of people (Parthiban et al., 2016). It has been observed that the traditional system of knowledge is now confined only among the surviving older people and few practitioners in the tribal community (Prakash et al., 2021). Demographically, the transmission of this knowledge is very prominent among older informants, particularly those aged between 50 and 70 years, indicating the threat of knowledge erosion among younger generations. This generational gap indicates the importance of documentation, education, and integration of traditional knowledge in modern ethnoveterinary science.    

The traditional knowledge of Kani tribal community is diminishing because of social, cultural and economic changes. Conservation and protection of traditional knowledge is mandatory for the future generations. The indigenous plant species are becoming endangered nowadays. Documentation of this knowledge is important and valuable for upcoming generations, communities and pharmacological studies. The main peculiarity of medicinal plants is that they have no side effects and are cost effective. It reduces microbial resistance and lowers the antibiotic residues in dairy and poultry products. In modern medicine, livestock animal diseases are cured using antibiotics which causes the accumulation of chemical residues in livestock products, which are highly toxic to humans. India is one of the world's largest milk producers. The indiscriminate use of antibiotics and other veterinary medicine in dairy animals lead to high veterinary drug residues in the various animal products which can ultimately lead to lethal diseases. This calls out for the immense scope of ethnoveterinary medication in our country, showing how important is the field of ethnoveterinary practices.

This study also threw light on the vast knowledge of Kani tribes about their ethnoveterinary practices which can be adopted and popularized by the entire world. It has also opened new vistas about the wide range of precious plants in an unexplored area of Puravimalakadavu (Amboori), Kerala, which can be used for ethnoveterinary medications. The immense floral diversity of this area needs to be protected and conserved for the upcoming generations.

The findings highlighted a holistic approach to animal healthcare that integrates traditional wisdom with modern veterinary practices. Promoting the conservation of medicinal species and supporting community led knowledge transmission will not only improve animal health in rural areas but also safeguard the aspect of precious cultural heritage. The present research work indicates the need for conservation of medicinal plants and traditional knowledge owned by Kani tribes of this area. This study can also contribute much to the field of ethnomedicine which is an emerging branch in modern medicine. From the aging demographic of knowledge holders, it has been found very urgent to record, preserve, and validate these practices through pharmacological and ethnobotanical research.

In conclusion, the study not only preserves the cultural heritage of the Kani community but also opens new horizons for sustainable animal healthcare, biodiversity conservation, and the development of eco-friendly veterinary alternatives with global relevance.

1. The therapeutic claims of the documented plants should be scientifically validated for efficacy, dosage, and safety, which can lead to the development of standardized herbal formulations.

2.  Many of the plants identified hold potential for novel bioactive compounds, opening opportunities for new veterinary drugs.

3. Endemic and endangered plants recorded in this study demand in-situ and ex-situ conservation, along with cultivation programs involving local communities.

4. Ethnoveterinary practices can be incorporated into sustainable livestock management policies, reducing reliance on synthetic antibiotics.

5. Government and NGOs can promote ethnoveterinary practices as eco-friendly, cost-effective alternatives, simultaneously supporting tribal livelihoods through herbal product commercialization.

Gayathri B.P., Gayatri G.P., Pooja L.N., Manoj Kumar A., Shyam Kumar S., Hyzil J.B., Smitha C.K. and Asha Ramachandran  (2025). A Survey of Ethnoveterinary Practices and Herbal Remedies Used by the Kani Tribes of Puravimalakadavu (Amboori), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. Biological Forum, 17(9): 27-38.