IndexingBotanical Insecticides: A Sustainable Alternative for Eco-Friendly Insect Pest Management
Author:
Pawar Shubham Tarasing1, Sajad Mohi-ud-din1, Mudasir Gani1*, Mohd. Firdoos1, Kuldeep Srivastava2 and Akhtar Ali Khan1
Journal Name: Biological Forum, 17(7): 201-208, 2025
Address:
1Division of Entomology, Faculty of Horticulture, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar (J&K), India.
2ICAR- Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh), India.
(Corresponding author: Mudasir Gani*)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.65041/BiologicalForum.2025.17.7.30
Download PDF
Abstract
Botanical insecticides, derived from plant extracts, essential oils, or other plant-based substances, offer a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to conventional chemical insecticides. These natural agents have been used in pest management for centuries and are valued for their effectiveness and reduced toxicity to humans, animals and other non-target beneficial organisms. The active compounds in botanical insecticides disrupt insect physiology by affecting their nervous systems, altering feeding behavior, or interfering with reproductive processes, thereby serving as effective tools for insect pest management. This review paper highlights the potential of several prominent botanical insecticides, including pyrethrins, neem oil and rotenone, with a particular focus on their mechanisms of action, efficacy and safety. The growing popularity of plant-derived insecticides is largely driven by increasing awareness of the environmental and health hazards posed by synthetic chemicals. Consequently, botanical insecticides are gaining attention as a key component of sustainable agricultural practices. In addition to their advantages, the paper also addresses challenges associated with the use of botanical insecticides, such as issues related to formulation stability, variability in effectiveness due to environmental factors and the potential development of pest resistance. Understanding and overcoming these limitations is essential for improving the reliability and widespread adoption of botanicals in integrated pest management (IPM) systems. Overall, botanical insecticides represent a promising and environmentally sound strategy for pest management and continued research in this area will be vital to maximizing their potential and ensuring their effectiveness in modern agriculture.
Keywords
Botanical Insecticides, IPM, Plant derived compounds, Sustainable agriculture.
Introduction
Botanical insecticides, derived from plant extracts and secondary metabolites, have been used since ancient times to protect crops and stored products from insect pests. Long before the commercial rise of synthetic insecticides in the 1940s, traditional farming systems across civilizations in Egypt, China, Greece and India relied heavily on botanical formulations for pest control (Ware, 1983; Thacker, 2002). Historical texts including the Vedas of ancient India, dating back over 4,000 years mention the use of plant-derived insecticides such as Azadirachta indica (neem) for crop protection (Philogène et al., 2005). With the advent of synthetic insecticides like organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids and neonicotinoids, the use of botanicals significantly declined, especially in industrialized countries, due to the synthetic compounds high efficacy, rapid action, ease of application and cost-effectiveness (Isman, 2008). However, concerns over the ecological, toxicological, and resistance related drawbacks of synthetic pesticides have rekindled global interest in botanical alternatives.
Botanical insecticides are plant-derived substances that exhibit insecticidal, repellent, antifeedant, fungicidal or nematicidal activity (Regnault-Roger et al., 2005; Isman, 2006). Prominent botanical products include pyrethrum, rotenone, neem, and essential oils, while others such as ryania, nicotine and sabadilla also have historical significance. Essential oils, in particular, serve crucial ecological functions in plants ranging from defense against herbivores and pathogens to attracting pollinators (Isman, 2000; 2006). These botanicals exert their effects through multiple mechanisms, including the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, modulation of GABA-gated chloride channels and interference with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, octopamine and tyramine receptors and sodium channels (Pavela and Benelli 2016; Regnault-Roger et al., 2012). Such multifaceted action reduces the risk of resistance development, making them highly suitable for integrated pest management (IPM) programs.
The Northwestern Himalayan region, particularly Jammu and Kashmir, harbors a rich diversity of medicinal plants with potent insecticidal, antifeedant and repellent properties. Species such as Artemisia absinthium, Achillea millefolium, Acorus calamus, Digitalis purpurea and Plectranthus rugosus are part of the indigenous flora and have shown significant efficacy against major pests like Helicoverpa armigera, Sitophilus oryzae and Corcyra cephalonica (Yaseen et al., 2025). These plants not only offer bioactive molecules for pest control but also represent an underutilized resource for developing eco-friendly, plant-based pesticides suited for temperate climates.
As the demand for residue-free produce, eco-friendly agriculture and sustainable farming practices increases, botanical insecticides are re-emerging as key tools for modern pest management. Their integration into organic farming and IPM systems supports both crop protection and environmental conservation, aligning with the goals of sustainable agriculture and biodiversity preservation.
BOTANICAL INSECTICIDE
A botanical insecticide is a plant-derived substance used to control or repel pests. These botanical insecticides are used in various ways, depending on the target pest and application method and they provide a more eco-friendly alternative to synthetic chemicals.
Here are some types of botanical insecticides:
1. Pyrethrin: The mixture contains six active compounds: pyrethrin I and II, cinerin I and II, jasmolin I and II. Pyrethrin I, cinerin I and jasmolin I are chrysanthemic acid esters, while pyrethrin II, cinerin II and jasmolin II are pyrethric acid esters (Head, 1973). Pyrethrin extract typically contains pyrethrins, cinerins and jasmolins in proportions of 10:3:1 (Crombie, 1995). The ratio of pyrethrin I to pyrethrin II is approximately 1.0 but can range between 0.5 and 3.5 in some breeding lines (Bhat, 1995). Pyrethrins are primarily found in flower heads with minor amounts present in other plant parts. Pyrethrin I and pyrethrin II are predominant and the most active components (Head, 1966; Casida and Quistad, 1995) while cinerin I, cinerin II and jasmolin I and II are present in lower concentrations and characterized with noticeable lower bioactivity (Chen and Wang 1996). Pyrethrin I acts in minutes and alone is toxic while pyrethrin II has a high knock-down effect appearing a few hours after its application.
Source Plant: This product is made from powdered and dried flower heads of the pyrethrum daisy specifically, Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium but also obtained from C. coccineum and C. marshalli.
Active Compound: Pyrethrins
Target Pests: These products are effective against a variety of insects, including Mosquitoes, sawfly larvae, caterpillars, leafhoppers, spider mites, bugs, cabbage wormsand Beetles as well as Culicoides variipennis (Woodward et al., 1985; Casida (1973); Glynne-Jones (2001)), House flies (Sheppard and Swedlund, 1999) and Rosy apple aphid (Grdisa and Grsic 2013).
Mode of Action: Pyrethrum can cause toxicity in insects by penetrating their cuticles and reaching their nervous systems. Pyrethrins found in pyrethrum bind to sodium channels in nerve cells. Sodium channels transmit nerve signals by allowing sodium ions to flow throughout the nerve cell. Pyrethrins can obstruct sodium channels, leading to hyperexcitation and loss of function in nerve cells. Exposure to pyrethrins often leads to insect nervous system shutdown and death (Soni and Anjikar 2014).
2. Nicotine: In chemistry, it is also referred to as I-methyl-2,3 (pyridyl) pyrrolidine. It is tobacco primary alkaloid. A naturally occurring heterocyclic nitrogenous base that is optically active has a comparatively high molecular weight and demonstrates discernible physiological activity is commonly referred to as an alkaloid. Nicotine is present in 2-14% of Nicotinica rustica and Nicotinana tabacam leaves. Approximately 97% of the twelve alkaloids present in tobacco are nicotine (Mandal, 2024).
The other two have insecticidal properties and are known as
(i) Nornicotine (C9 H12 N2) 2-(3-pyridyl pyrrolidine).
(ii) Anabusine (nornicotine, 3-(2-piperdyl) pyridine).
Source Plant: Leaves of tobacco plants Nicotiana tabacum and similar species.
Active Compound: Nicotine
Target Pests: Nicotine is toxic to insects particularly those with soft bodies like Aphids, thrips, caterpillars (Casanova et al., 2002).
Mode of Action: In both insects and mammals, nicotine acts as a highly rapid nerve toxin. It competes with acetylcholine, the primary neurotransmitter, by attaching to acetylcholine receptors at nerve synapses, leading to uncontrolled nerve activation. This interference with normal nerve impulse activity causes a swift malfunction of body systems that rely on nervous input for their proper operation. In insects, nicotine effects are relatively specific, impacting only certain categories of insects (Ishaaya and Degheele 1998).
3. Rotenone: Rotenone makes up about 5% of dried derris roots (Ling, 2003). Since the 1930s, rotenone has been employed as a selective fish poison to control freshwater fisheries and maintain the intended species balance (Whitehead and Bowers 1983; Ray, 1991). It is regarded as one of the most environmentally friendly pollutants that can be used to manage fisheries. The insects rapidly cease feeding after being exposed to rotenone and they die a few hours to several days later.
Source Plant: Derris spp., Lonchocarpus spp.
Active Compound: Rotenoids
Target Pests: A variety of insect species such as Caterpillars, Aphids, Thrips and other pests present in fruits and vegetables such as the Colorado potato beetle, Plum curculio, Diabrotica and Acalymma species (Weinzierl, 1998) are effectively killed by this contact and stomach poison. Rotenone also effective against bugs, aphids, potato beetles, spider mites, carpenter ants (Cabras et al., 2002; Cabizza et al., 2004).
Mode of Action: Rotenone inhibits respiratory enzymes including NAD+ (a coenzyme involved in metabolic redox reactions) and coenzyme Q (which transports electrons) leading to respiratory function failure (Ishaaya and Degheele, 1998).
4. Ryania: Ryanodine and 9,21-dehydro-ryanodine are the two most potent ryanoids. Less than 1% of ground stem wood contains ryanoide (Khater, 2012).
Source Plant: The wood of the Caribbean shrub Ryania speciosa (Flacourtiaceae) is obtained by grinding it.
Active Compound: Ryanodine
Target Pests: Codling moths, potato aphids, onion thrips, corn earworms, silkworms (Copping and Menn 2000); (Isman, 2006).
Mode of Action: In insects, these compounds activate calcium release channels that are sensitive to ryanodine. Ryania extracts are highly toxic to fish but have a weak effect on mammals (Mandal, 2024). Ryania is a gradual acting toxin for the stomach.
5. Sabadilla: Sabadila produces alkaloids known as veratrine. Cevadine and veratridine are the most active veratrines, occurring in a 2:1 ratio (Dayan et al., 2009) and found that ripe and aged Sabadilla seeds contain approximately 0.3% alkaloids. Veratrin is produced by several other species, including European white hellebore, Veratrum album L. (Ujvary et al., 1991).
Source Plant: The wood of the Caribbean shrub Ryania speciosa (Flacourtiaceae) is obtained by grinding it.
Active Compound: Veratridine and other alkaloids
Target Pests: It is effective against cabbage loopers, squash bugs, grasshoppers, codling moths, armyworms, aphids (Bloomquist, 1996; 2003).
Mode of Action: Toxic alkaloids found in sabadillas impair the function of nerve cell membranes in insects, leading to paralysis, death and loss of nerve function. Certain insects are instantly killed by sabadilla, while others may remain paralyzed for a few days before passing away (El-Wakeil, 2013).
6. Neem: Neem insecticides are derived from Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Syn. Melia azadirachta L.) a tropical and subtropical tree that is scientifically classified in the Meliaceae family. It is also known as neem and Indian lilac. Neem plants originated in Southern and Southeast Asia and are now found in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, North-South America and Australia. The main active ingredient in neema tetranortriterpenoid limonoid is azadirachtin (Mordue and Blackwell 1993).
Neem oil which is produced by cold pressing seeds is helpful in controlling phytopathogens as well as softbodied insects and mites. Since the active ingredient in neem seeds is normally only 0.2% to 0.6% by weight solvent partitions or other chemical processes is needed to concentrate it to the 10-50% level found in the technical grade material used to make their products (Sallena 1989; Schmutterer 1990).
Source Plant: Azadirachta indica
Active Compound: Azadirachtin
Target Pests: Mites, psyllids, scales, bollworms, aphids, thrips, leaf miners, caterpillars, Armyworms, cutworms, stemborers, whiteflies, leafhoppers (Dimetry et al.,1993; 2010)
Mode of Action: Neem is primarily a feeding deterrent for insects but it also acts as a repellent, growth regulator, oviposition suppressant, sterilizant and toxin. Neem acts as an insect repellent, preventing them from feeding. It acts as a feeding deterrent, preventing insects from feeding. Feeding occurs either immediately after the first "taste" (Salama and Sharaby 1988) or shortly after ingesting the food (due to secondary hormonal or physiological effects of the deterrent substance). Neem, growth regulator, is thought to disrupt normal development by inhibiting chitin synthesis. Neem effects on different species vary (Gour and Sridevi 2012).
7. Quassia: Quassia (Quassia amara L.), another name for the bitter wood tree, is a tropical forest shrub that is rarely small. It is a member of the family Simaroubaceae. Quassinoids from Soulamea soulameoides and Simaba multiflora were tested against Helicoverpa virescens and Spodoptera frugiperda. Their capacity to inhibit insect growth matched their cytotoxic and antileukemic effects (Mandal, 2024).
Source Plant: Quassiaamara
Active Compound: Quassin
Target Pests: Effective against aphids and sawflies (McIndoo and Sievers, 1917).
Mode of Action: Their cytotoxic and antileukemic properties were complemented by their ability to inhibit insect growth. Act as a deterrent and growth inhibitor (Verma et al., 2023).
8. Kaempferol: Artemisia absinthium, commonly known as wormwood, is a temperate medicinal plant naturally distributed in the Kashmir region of Jammu and Kashmir at altitudes ranging from 1500 to 2700 meters above sea level. It belongs to the family Asteraceae and is well known for its traditional medicinal use and insecticidal properties. The plant contains several bioactive compounds such as α-thujone, camphor, 1,8-cineole and kaempferol, which exhibit strong insecticidal, antifeedant and acetylcholinesterase inhibiting activity. Owing to its rich phytochemical profile and abundance in Kashmir's forest ecosystems, Artemisia absinthium holds significant promise as a source of eco-friendly botanical insecticides for sustainable pest management.
Source Plant: Artemisia absinthium L. (Common name: Wormwood)
Active Compounds: Kaempferol, Diosmetin, Pipecolic acid, 1,7-Bis (4-hydroxyphenyl) heptan-3-one, NP-021018 (identified via HR-LCMS)
Target Pests: Corcyra cephalonica (Rice moth), Sitophilus oryzae (Rice weevil), Helicoverpa armigera (Gram pod borer).
Mode of Action: The insecticidal activity is attributed mainly to kaempferol, which showed the highest binding affinity to the acetylcholinesterase enzyme of H. armigera (-9.0 kcal/mol), surpassing even the synthetic reference Malaoxon (-5.6 kcal/mol). The mode of action involves the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, toxicity and mortality to larvae through contact exposure (Yaseen et al., 2025).
9. β-asarone: Acorus calamus, commonly known as sweet flag, is a perennial aromatic herb belonging to the family Acoraceae. It grows abundantly in marshy areas of temperate regions, including parts of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Traditionally used in Ayurveda and folk medicine, Acorus calamus is also known for its insecticidal, antifungal and antimicrobial properties. The rhizome contains potent bioactive compounds like β-asarone, which exhibit strong repellent, antifeedant and contact toxicity against a variety of insect pests. Due to its natural origin and efficacy, it is considered a promising candidate for use in botanical pesticides and grain storage pest management.
Source Plant: Acorus calamus L. (Common name: Sweet flag)
Active Compounds: β-asarone (primary bioactive compound), α-asarone, calamenene, Eugenol, Methyl Eugenol
Target Pests: Sitophilus oryzae (Rice weevil), Tribolium castaneum (Red flour beetle), Spodoptera litura (Tobacco caterpillar), Helicoverpa armigera (Gram pod borer), Callosobruchus chinensis (Pulse beetle)
Mode of Action:
Contact and fumigant toxicant, Disrupts nervous system activity in insects, Causes antifeedant, repellent and oviposition deterrent effects, β-asarone inhibits enzyme activity and leads to larval and adult mortality (Isman 2006); Liu et al., 2013; Yaseen et al., 2025).
Table 1: List of botanicals and their parts used against targeted pests.
Sr. No. | Scientific Name | Part utilized | Target Pest | References |
1. | Acorus calamus L. | Leaf, Rhizome | Sitophilus zeamais | (Yao et al., 2012) |
2. | Allium cepa L. | Seed | Tomato Lepidopteran Pest, Bemisia tabaci, Pieris brassicae | (Arora et al., 2012; Debra and Misheck 2014) |
3. | Allium sativum L. | Bulb | White fly, Thrips, Rice Weevil | (Muthomi et al., 2017; Sanskriti et al., 2024) |
4. | Adhatoda vasica L. | Leaf, Root, Fruit, Flower | Spodoptera littoralis | (Sadek, 2003) |
5. | Annona squamosa L. | Seed, Leaves | Diamondback moth, Cabbage looper, Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium castaneum, Callosobruchus maculates | (Khalequzzaman and Sultana 2006; Kumar et al., 2010; Senthilkumar et al., 2014; Ismail and Sleem 2021; Muthu et al., 2024) |
6. | Camellia oleifera | Stem, Leaf | Lepidopteran pest | (Cui et al., 2019) |
7. | Capsicum frutescens L. | Fruit | Thrips, Legume pod boror | (Rosulu et al., 2022) |
8. | Chromolaena odorata L. | Leaf, Stem, Root | Callosobruchus maculates | (Osariyekemwen and Benedicta 2017) |
9. | Citrus hystrix DC | Leaves | Spodoptera litura fabricius, Lasioderma serricorne | (Loh et al., 2011; Ikawati et al., 2017) |
10. | Coriandrum sativum L. | Seed, Fruit | Store grain pest, Tribolium castaneum | (Lee et al., 2018; Khani and Rahdari 2012) |
11. | Curcuma longa L. | Root, Stem | Spodoptera frugiperda, Spodoptera litura, | (Cui et al., 2022; Veeran et al., 2019) |
12. | Rhododendron molle G.Don | Flower | Pieris rapae | (Zhong et al., 2001) |
13. | Zingiber officinale Roscoe. | Rhizome | Storage pest | (Amuji et al., 2012) |
Table 2: List of commercial botanical insecticides, their active compounds and biological effects on insect pests.
Sr. No. | Product | Botanical Name | Main Bioactive Compound | Trade name | Effects | References |
1. | Karanjin | Derris indica Lam. | Karanjin | Derisom | Insecticide, Acaricide | (Copping and Duke, 2007; Singh et al., 2021; Verma et al., 2011) |
2. | Neem | A. indica | Azadirachtin, Dihydroazadirachtin, Triterpenoids | Ecozin, Azatrol EC, | Insecticide, Acaricide, Fungicide | (Copping and Duke 2007; Muhammad and Kashere 2020; Khater, 2012) |
3. | Nicotine | Nicotiana spp. | (RS)-isomers and (S)-isomer of nicotine sulfate | Stalwart, No-Fid, Tobacco Dust | Insecticide | (Copping and Duke 2007; Isman and Paluch 2011) |
4. | Lemongrass essential oil | C.citratus, Cymbopogon Flexuosus | Citronellal, Citral | GreenMatch, EXTM | Insecticide, Herbicide | (Fischer et al., 2013; Moustafa et al., 2021) |
5. | Sabadilla | Schoenocaulon spp. (S. officinale) | Mixture of alkaloids (cevadine, veratridine) | Veratran, Red Devil | Insecticide | (Isman and Paluch 2011) |
6. | Pyrethrum | Tanacetum Cinerariaefolium | Esters of chrysanthemic acid and pyrethric acid (pyrethrins I and II, cinerins I and II, jasmolins I and II) | Pyganic, Diatect | Insecticide, Acaricide | (Dayan et al., 1992) |
7. | Ryania | Ryania spp. | Ryanodine, Ryania, 9,21- didehydroryanodine (alkaloids) | Natur-Gro R-50, Natur-Gro Triple Plus, Ryan 50 | Insecticide | (Copping and Duke 2007; Isman and Paluch 2011) |
Factors influencing the use of Botanical insecticides
In addition to their advantages, the use of botanical insecticides is influenced by a variety of factors that also present certain challenges, as discussed in this paper. These include formulation stability, environmental variability and the risk of pest resistance development. The following key factors affect their overall efficacy and adoption:
1. Plant Source and Active Ingredients: The insecticidal potential of botanical pesticides is directly linked to the plant species used and the concentration of its bioactive compounds. Variability in the chemical composition due to plant genotype, geographic origin, or harvest time can significantly influence efficacy. Ensuring consistent potency remains a formulation challenge.
2. Application Method: The effectiveness of botanical insecticides depends on how they are applied whether as foliar sprays, soil treatments, fumigants, or dusts. The success of each method varies depending on the crop, pest species, stage of infestation and local conditions, making standardized application difficult.
3. Environmental Factors: Meteorological conditions such as temperature, humidity, UV exposure and rainfall play a major role in the degradation, wash-off, or volatilization of active ingredients. This environmental sensitivity often leads to inconsistent results under field conditions, requiring careful timing and repeated applications.
4. Regulatory Framework and Standards: The commercialization and field use of botanical insecticides are subject to regulatory approvals, which may vary by country or region. Maximum residue limits (MRLs) and quality control requirements can affect the availability and legal use of these products in food crops.
5. Cost and Accessibility: The affordability and availability of botanical formulations influence their adoption, especially in low-income or remote agricultural settings. Some botanicals are regionally abundant and cost-effective, while others may be scarce or expensive to process and formulate.
6. Formulation and Stability Challenges: Botanical insecticides often face challenges related to shelf life, volatility and degradation during storage or after application. These factors affect product reliability and user confidence, highlighting the need for improved formulations with enhanced stability.
7. Pest Resistance Potential: Though less common than with synthetic pesticides, pests may still develop resistance to botanicals, especially when sub-lethal doses are applied repeatedly. Rotational use and integrated strategies are essential to mitigate this risk.
8. Additional Influencing Factors: Other aspects such as the age of the treated organism, climatic season, dosage, exposure duration and indirect effects also influence outcomes. As noted by Henn et al. (1991); Dosemeci et al. (2002), these variables can alter both the effectiveness and safety of botanical pesticide use.
Conclusion
Future Scope
Botanical insecticides have the potential for long-term pest management. Future research shall focus on identifying new bioactive compounds, improving formulations using advanced technologies, and incorporating these products into Integrated Pest Management (IPM) systems. Standardization, regulatory support, and increased farmer awareness will be critical to widespread adoption. As environmental concerns grow, botanical insecticides are expected to play an important role in sustainable agriculture.
References
Amuji, C. F., Echezona, B. C. and Dialoke, S. A. (2012). Extraction fractions of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and residue in the control of field and storage pests. Journal of Agricultural Technology, 8(6), 2023-2031
Arora, S., Kanojia, A. K., Kumar, A., Mogha, N. and Sahu, V. (2012). Biopesticide formulation to control tomato lepidopteran pest menace. Current Science, 102(7), 1051-1057.
Bhat, B. K. (1995). Breeding Methodologies Applicable to Pyrethrum. In: Pyrethrum Flowers: Production, Chemistry, Toxicology and Uses (JE Casida, GB Quistad, eds) Oxford University Press, New York, USA, pp.67-94.
Bloomquist, J. R. (1996). Ion channels as targets for insecticides. Annual review of entomology, 41(1), 163-190.
Bloomquist, J. R. (2003). Chloride channels as tools for developing selective insecticides. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology: Published in Collaboration with the Entomological Society of America, 54(4), 145-156.
Cabizza, M., Angioni, A., Melis, M., Cabras, M., Tuberoso, C. V. and Cabras, P. (2004). Rotenone and rotenoids in cube resins, formulations and residues on olives. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 52(2), 288-293.
Cabras, P., Caboni, P., Cabras, M., Angioni, A. and Russo, M. (2002). Rotenone residues on olives and in olive oil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50(9), 2576-2580.
Casanova, H., Ortiz, C., Peláez, C., Vallejo, A., Moreno, M. E. and Acevedo, M. (2002). Insecticide formulations based on nicotine oleate stabilized by sodium caseinate. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50(22), 6389-6394.
Casida, J. E. (1973). Pyrethrum the natural insecticide. Academic Press, New York, pp. 329.
Casida, J. E. and Quistad, G. B. (1995). Pyrethrum flowers: production, chemistry, toxicology, and uses. pp. 345-350.
Chen, Z. M., & Wang, Y. H. (1996). Chromatographic methods for the determination of pyrethrin and pyrethroid pesticide residues in crops, foods and environmental samples. Journal of Chromatography A, 754(1-2), 367-395.
Copping, L. G. and Duke, S. O. (2007). Natural products that have been used commercially as crop protection agents. Pest Management Science: Formerly Pesticide Science, 63(6), 524-554.
Copping, L. G. and Menn, J. J. (2000). Biopesticides: a review of their action, applications and efficacy. Pest Management Science: Formerly Pesticide Science, 56(8), 651-676.
Crombie, L. (1995). Chemistry of pyrethrins. In: Pyrethrum Flowers: Production, Chemistry, Toxicology and Uses (JE Casida, GB Quistad, eds), Oxford University Press, New York, USA, pp.108–122.
Cui, C., Yang, Y., Zhao, T., Zou, K., Peng, C., Cai, H. and Hou, R. (2019). Insecticidal activity and insecticidal mechanism of total saponins from Camellia oleifera. Molecules, 24(24), 4518.
Cui, G., Yuan, H., He, W., Deng, Y., Sun, R. and Zhong, G. (2022). Synergistic effects of botanical curcumin-induced programmed cell death on the management of Spodoptera litura Fabricius with avermectin. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 229, 1-9.
Dayan, F. E., Cantrell, C. L. and Duke, S. O. (2009). Natural products in crop protection. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry, 17(12), 4022-4034.
Dayan, F. G. M., Tellez, A. and Duke, S. (1992). Managing weeds with natural products. Pesticide Outlook, 10, 185–188.
Debra, K. R. and Misheck, D. (2014). Onion (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum) as pest control intercrops in cabbage based intercrop systems in Zimbabwe. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, 7(2), 13-17.
Dimetry, N. Z., Abd El-Salam, A. M. E. and El-Hawary, F. M. A. (2010). Importance of plant extract formulations in managing different pests attacking beans in new reclaimed area and under storage conditions. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 43(7), 700-711.
Dimetry, N. Z., Amer, S. A. A. and Reda, A. S. (1993). Biological activity of two neem seed kernel extracts against the two‐spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch. Journal of Applied Entomology, 116(1‐5), 308-312.
Dosemeci, M., Alavanja, M. C., Rowland, A. S., Mage, D., Zahm, S. H., Rothman, N. and Blair, A. (2002). A quantitative approach for estimating exposure to pesticides in the Agricultural Health Study. Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 46(2), 245-260.
El-Wakeil, N. E. (2013). Botanical pesticides and their mode of action. Gesunde Pflanzen, 65(4), 125-149.
Fischer, D., Imholt, C., Pelz, H. J., Wink, M., Prokop, A. and Jacob, J. (2013). The repelling effect of plant secondary metabolites on water voles, Arvicola amphibius. Pest Management Science, 69(3), 437-443.
Glynne-Jones A (2001) Pyrethrum. Pesticide Outlook, 12, 195–198
Gour, T. B. and Sridevi, D. (2012). Chemistry, Toxicity and Mode of action of Insecticides. Kalyani Publishers.
Grdiša, M. and Gršić, K. (2013). Botanical insecticides in plant protection. Agriculturae Conspectus Scientificus, 78(2), 85-93.
Head, S. W. (1973). Composition of pyrethrum extract and analysis of pyrethrins. In Pyrethrum; The Natural Insecticide (JECasida, ed). Academic Press, New York, NY, USA, pp. 25-49.
Head, S. W. A. (1966). Study of the insecticidal constituents in Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (1) their development in the flower head. (2) Their distribution in the plant. Pyrethrum Post, 8(4), 32-37.
Henn, T., Weinzieri, R., Gray, M. and Steffey, K. (1991). Alternatives in insect management. Field and Forage Crops, 1307, 26.
Ikawati, S., Dhuha, M. S. and Himawan, T. (2017). Bioactivity of Citrus hystrix DC leaf extract against cigarette beetle Lasioderma serricorne F. Journal of Tropical Life Science, 7(3), 189-196.
Ishaaya. I., Degheele, D. 1998. Ed. Insecticide with Novel mode of Action Mechanism and Application. Springer, Verlag.
Ismail, S. M. and Sleem, F. (2021). Toxicity and residual effect of Annona squamosal L. and Piper nigrum L. seeds extracts against Tribolium castaneum and Sitophilus oryzae. International Journal of Science and Research, 10(12), 517-523.
Isman, M. B. (2000). Plant essential oils for pest and disease management. Crop protection, 19(8-10), 603-608.
Isman, M. B. (2006). Botanical insecticides, deterrents, and repellents in modern agriculture and an increasingly regulated world. Annual Review of Entomology, 51(1), 45-66.
Isman, M. B. (2008). Botanical insecticides: for richer for poorer. Pest Management Science: formerly Pesticide Science, 64(1), 8-11.
Isman, M. B. and Machial, C. M. (2006). Pesticides based on plant essential oils: from traditional practice to commercialization. Advances in Phytomedicine, 3, 29-44.
Isman, M. B. and Paluch, G. (2011). Chapter 7. Needles in the haystack: Exploring chemical diversity of botanical insecticides. In RSC Green Chemistry; Òscar, L., Fernàndez-Bolaños, J.G., Eds.; Royal Society of Chemistry: Cambridge, UK, pp. 248–265.
Khalequzzaman, M. and Sultana, S. (2006). Insecticidal activity of Annona squamosa L. seed extracts against the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst). Journal of Bio-Science, 14, 107-112.
Khani, A. and Rahdari, T. (2012). Chemical composition and insecticidal activity of essential oil from Coriandrum sativum seeds against Tribolium confusum and Callosobruchus maculatus. International Scholarly Research Notices, 2012(1), 1-5.
Khater, H. F. (2012). Prospects of botanical biopesticides in insect pest management. Pharmacologia, 3(12), 641-656.
Kumar, J. A., Rekha, T., Shyamala, D. S., Kannan, M., Jaswanth, A. and Gopal, V. (2010). Insecticidal activity of ethanolic extract of leaves of Annona. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 2, 177–180
Lee, M. J., Lee, S. E., Kang, M. S., Park, B., Lee, S. G. and Lee, H. S. (2018). Acaricidal and insecticidal properties of Coriandrum sativum oils and their major constituents extracted by three different methods against stored product pests. Applied Biological Chemistry, 61, 481-488.
Ling, N. (2003). Rotenoneôa review of its toxicity and use for fisheries management. Science for conservation, 211, 1-40.
Liu, X. C., Zhou, L. G., Liu, Z. L. and Du, S. S. (2013). Identification of insecticidal constituents of the essential oil of Acorus calamus rhizomes against Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel. Molecules, 18(5), 5684-5696.
Loh, F. S., Awang, R. M., Omar, D. and Rahmani, M. (2011). Insecticidal properties of Citrus hystrix DC leaves essential oil against Spodoptera litura fabricius. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 5(16), 3739-3744.
Mandal, I. (2024). Chapter-2 Botanicals: As Alternate to Synthetic Insecticides for Insects Pest Management. Entomology, 6, 33-49.
McIndoo, N. E. and Sievers, A. F. (1917). Quassia Extract as a Contact Insecticide. Journal of Agricultural Research, 10(10), 497-531.
Mordue, A. J. and Blackwell, A. (1993). Azadirachtin: an update. Journal of insect physiology, 39(11), 903-924.
Moustafa, M., Awad, M., Amer, A., Hassan, N., Ibrahim, E. D., Ali, H. and Salem, M. (2021). Insecticidal activity of lemon grass essential oil as an eco-friendly agent against the black cutworm Agrotis Ipsilon (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Insects, 12(8), 737.
Muhammad, A. and Kashere, M. A. (2020). Neem, Azadirachta indica L. (A. Juss): an eco-friendly botanical insecticide for managing farmers insects pest problems-a review. FUDMA Journal of Sciences, 4(4), 484-491.
Muthomi, J., Fulano, A.M., Wagacha, J. M. and Mwang’ombe, A.W. (2017). Management of snap bean insect pests and diseases by use of antagonistic fungi and plant extracts. Sustainable Agriculture Research, 6(3), 52-63.
Muthu, R., Premalatha, K., Shanthi, M., Prithiva, J. N. and Vellaikumar, S. (2024). Bioefficacy of Annona squamosa L. Seed Extracts as Oviposition Deterrents and Adult Emergence Inhibitors Against Callosobruchus maculatus F. (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Biological Forum- An International Journal, 16(11), 138-141.
Osariyekemwen, O. U. and Benedicta, N. O. (2017). Evaluation of the repellent and insecticidal activities of the leaf, stem and root powders of Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) against the cowpea beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 21(3), 511-518.
Pavela, R. and Benelli, G. (2016). Essential oils as ecofriendly biopesticides Challenges and constraints. Trends in plant science, 21(12), 1000-1007.
Philogene, B. J. R., Regnault-Roger, C. and Vincent, C. (2005). Botani- cals: Yesteday’s and today’s promises. In: Regnault-Roger C., Philogene BJR, Vincent C, eds. ` Biopesticides of Plant Origin. Paris, Lavoisier, and Andover, UK, Intercept, pp. 1– 15.
Ray, D. E. (1991). Pesticides derived from plants and other organisms. Handbook of pesticide toxicology.
Regnault-Roger, C. and Philogène, B. J. (2008). Past and current prospects for the use of botanicals and plant allelochemicals in integrated pest management. Pharmaceutical Biology, 46(1-2), 41 - 52.
Regnault-Roger, C. and Vincent, C. (2005). Botanicals: yesterday’s and today’s promise. Biopesticides of Plant Origin. Lavoisier Publishing Inc., Secaucus, NJ, 1-15.
Regnault-Roger, C., Philogène, B. J. and Vincent, C. (2005). Biopesticides of Plant Origin (pp. xxi+-313).
Regnault-Roger, C., Vincent, C., and Arnason, J. T. (2012). Essential oils in insect control: low-risk products in a high-stakes world. Annual Review of Entomology, 57(1), 405-424.
Rosulu, H., Oni, M., Ofuya, T. and Adebayo, R. (2022). Bioefficacy of chilli pepper Capsicum frutescens (L.) and it’s intercropping on the growth, yield and insect pest management of cowpea Vigna unguiculata (L.) WALP in the rain forest area of nigeria. J. Glob. Agric. Ecol, 13, 7-18.
Sadek, M. M. (2003). Antifeedant and toxic activity of Adhatodavasica leaf extract against Spodoptera littoralis. Journal of Applied Entomology, 127(7), 396-404.
Salama, H. S. and Sharaby, A. (1988). Feeding deterrence induced by some plants in Spodoptera littoralis and their potentiating effect on Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 9(5), 573-577.
Sallena, R. C. (1989). Insecticides from neem. Insecticides of plant origin. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 213.
Sanskriti B. Maurya, M. Raghuraman and Ranjeet Kumar (2024). Screening of Plant Powders Against Rice Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.). Biological Forum – An International Journal, 16(5), 118-121.
Schmutterer, H. (1990). Properties and potential of natural pesticides from the neem tree, Azadirachta indica. Annual review of entomology, 35(1), 271-297.
Senthilkumar, N., Gurusubramanian, G. and Murugan, K. (2014). Joint Insecticidal Action of Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki with Annona squamosa L. and Prosopis juliflora Swartz DC on Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). In Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 67, 8-17.
Sheppard, D. C. and Swedlund, B. (2000). Toxicity of individual pyrethrin esters to house flies (Diptera: Muscidae). Journal of Entomological Science, 35(3), 279-282.
Singh, A., Bhatt, G., Gujre, N., Mitra, S., Swaminathan, R., Limaye, A. M. and Rangan, L. (2021). Karanjin. Phytochemistry, 183, 112641.
Soni, V. and Anjikar, A. (2014). Use of pyrethrin/pyrethrum and its effect on environment and human: a review. Pharma Tutor, 2(6), 52-60.
Thacker, J. R. (2002). An introduction to arthropod pest control. Cambridge university press.
Ujvary, I., Eya, B. K., Grendell, R. L., Toia, R. F. and Casida, J. E. (1991). Insecticidal activity of various 3-acyl and other derivatives of veracevine relative to the Veratrum alkaloids veratridine and cevadine. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 39(10), 1875-1881.
Veeran, S., Cui, G., Shu, B., Yi, X. and Zhong, G. (2019). Curcumin‐induced autophagy and nucleophagy in Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 insect cells occur via PI3K/AKT/TOR pathways. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, 120(2), 2119-2137.
Verma, M., Pradhan, S., Sharma, S., Naik, S. N. and Prasad, R. (2011). Efficacy of karanjin and phorbol ester fraction against termites (Odontotermes obesus). International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 65(6), 877-882.
Verma, N. S., Kuldeep, D. K., Chouhan, M., Prajapati, R. and Singh, S. K. (2023). A review on eco-friendly pesticides and their rising importance in sustainable plant protection practices. International Journal of Plant and Soil Science, 35(22), 200-214.
Ware, G. W. (1983). Pesticides, theory and applications. pp308.
Weinzierl, R. and Cloyd, R. (1998). Insect management for commercial vegetable crops. Illinois Agricultural Pest Management Handbook. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 181-208.
Whitehead, D. L. and Bowers, W. S. (Eds.). (1983). Natural products for innovative pest management (pp. xix+-586).
Woodward, D. L., Colwell, A. E. and Anderson, N. L. (1985). Use of a pyrethrin larvicide to control Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in an alkaline lake. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association, 1(3), 363-368.
Yao, Y., Cai, W., Yang, C. and Hua, H. (2012). Supercritical fluid CO2 extraction of Acorus calamus L. (Arales: Araceae) and its contact toxicity to Sitophilus zeamais Motschusky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Natural Product Research, 26(16), 1498-1503.
Yaseen, M., Gani, M., Ganai, S. A., Ann, B. U., Wani, F. J., Mantoo, M. A. and Khan, R. M. (2025). Insecticidal potential of five medicinal plants: An In Vitro evaluation and molecular docking analysis of Artemisia absinthium. PloS one, 20(7), 1-14.
How to cite this article
Pawar Shubham Tarasing, Sajad Mohi-ud-din, Mudasir Gani, Mohd. Firdoos, Kuldeep Srivastava and Akhtar Ali Khan (2025). Botanical Insecticides: A Sustainable Alternative for Eco-Friendly Insect Pest Management. Biological Forum, 17(7): 201-208.
License
Research Trend is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.